Paper no. 110 assignment

Paper no.110 A  HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATRE FROM : 1900 to 2000 

Topic: Apocalyptic literature

Name:Pandya Mayuri

Roll no.14

Enroll no.4069206420210023

Email id: pandyamayuri0610@gmail.com

Batch:2021 to 2023

Submitted to: S.B.Gardi Department of English MKBU.

Apocalyptic literature, literary genre that foretells supernaturally inspired cataclysmic events that will transpire at the end of the world. A product of the Judeo-Christian tradition, apocalyptic literature is characteristically pseudonymous; it takes narrative form, employs esoteric language, expresses a pessimistic view of the present, and treats the final events as imminent.

The earliest apocalypses are Jewish works that date from about 200 BCE to about 165 BCE. Whereas earlier Jewish writers, the Prophets, had foretold the coming of disasters, often in esoteric language, they neither placed these disasters in a narrative framework nor conceived of them in eschatological terms. During the time of the Hellenistic domination of Palestine and the revolt of the Maccabees, however, a pessimistic view of the present became coupled with an expectation of an apocalyptic scenario, which is characterized by an imminent crisis, a universal judgment, and a supernatural resolution.

The most famous and influential of the early Jewish apocalypses is the last part of the biblical Book of Daniel (chapters 7–12), written about 167 BCE and attributed to a revered wise man who supposedly lived some four centuries earlier at the time of the Babylonian captivity. “Daniel” recounts a series of visions, the first of which (chapter 7) is the most succinct. He sees a succession of four terrible beasts, evidently representing a succession of earthly persecutors culminating in the contemporary Hellenistic tyrant Antiochus IV Epiphanes (the “eleventh horn” of the fourth beast). Daniel then sees the destruction of the last beast by the “Ancient of Days” and the coming of “one like the Son of Man,” to whom is given “everlasting dominion that shall not pass away” and whose kingdom will be inhabited by “the people of the saints,” who will forever serve and obey him.

The other Jewish apocalypses—the first Book of Enoch (c. 200 BCE), the fourth Book of Ezra (c. 100 CE), and the second and third Books of Baruch (c. 100 CE)—are “apocryphal” insofar as they do not belong to the canonical Hebrew Bible. They are extant in Ethiopic, Syriac, Greek, and Latin translations made by Christians rather than in their original Hebrew or Aramaic forms. The reason that the apocalypses survived in this manner seems to be that, after the failure of a series of Jewish revolts against the Roman Empire (i.e., after about 135 CE), the rabbis who began the process of codifying the Jewish tradition turned away from apocalypticism to an emphasis on upholding and interpreting the law of the Pentateuch. Fatefully, however, while Jewish apocalypticism was still flourishing, it was taken up by Christians.

Most authorities regard early Christianity as a fervently apocalyptic religion, intent on the imminent “Second Coming” of Christ to preside over the Last Judgment and the end of the world. Early Christian apocalypticism is evident in the Gospels, which are permeated with language taken from Daniel. The so-called Little Apocalypse, a sermon by Jesus found in Matthew (24–25) with parallels in Mark (13) and Luke (21), foretells the imminence of collective tribulation and chastisement before the coming of the “Son of Man” who will “sit upon the throne of his glory” and separate “the sheep from the goats.” Some Pauline epistles also contain apocalyptic content. The last book of the New Testament, the Revelation to John, also known as the Apocalypse of St. John (the Greek term apokalypsis literally means revelation), concludes canonical Christian scripture in a ringingly apocalyptic key. Written in Asia Minor about 95 CE by a Christian named John (the fact that the author gives his true name is the one major exception to the rule of pseudonymity), the Revelation offers a vibrant, sometimes lurid, account of imminent crisis, judgment, and salvation. Evidently obsessed by the persecution of Christians by the Roman Empire, which he refers to as “Babylon,” John recounts a series of visions that foretell a crescendo of persecutions and martyrdoms followed by universal judgment, retribution for the forces of evil, and rewards for the faithful. Details are often impenetrable because of esoteric allusive language (e.g., “a woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet…being with child [and] travailing in birth”). Moreover, the narrative is bewildering because it repeats itself frequently. Nevertheless, the psychedelic imagery is easily etched in the mind, and the mysteries found in the text have proved endlessly fascinating. Nor can there be any doubt of their ultimate message: the world, which is already suffering, will soon be washed in blood, but the “King of Kings” will come to “tread the winepress of the wrath of God,” and everlasting rewards will be given to those who have “washed their robes in the blood of the lamb.” (Revelation 14:19)

 

A number of other Christian apocalypses were written during the period between 100 CE and 400 CE, including the Apocalypse of Peter, the Apocalypse of Paul, the Ascension of Isaiah, and the Testament of Abraham. Although these works adhere to apocalyptic form in recounting supernatural visions pseudonymously in esoteric language, they refer to an individual’s salvation and lack the characteristic apocalyptic content of treating collective history and collective salvation. The trend toward concentrating on individual salvation was reinforced in the theology of the leading Church Fathers, preeminently St. Augustine. The Fathers were eschatological insofar as they believed in the Last Judgment but non-apocalyptic in that they insisted that the time of the last act of history was utterly uncertain. Yet beliefs inherited from Daniel and the New Testament permitted the survival of apocalyptic thinking in the Middle Ages and led to the creation of new apocalyptic works, such as the Revelations of Pseudo-Methodius (mid-7th century) and the Vision of Brother John (late 13th century). Many medieval authors also wrote pseudonymous prophecies that did not take the form of narrative visions but foresaw imminent crisis, judgment, and salvation.

Although the apocalyptic genre disappeared after the Middle Ages, an apocalyptic mood, reinforced by explicit references to the Revelation to John, appears in numerous modern literary works (e.g., Katherine Anne Porter’s Pale Horse, Pale Rider [1939] and Nathanael West’s Day of the Locust [1939]) and films (e.g., Ingmar Bergman’s The Seventh Seal [1957] and Federico Fellini’s La dolce vita [1959]). Moreover, several Protestant denominations in the United States propound apocalyptic beliefs, which have been expressed in numerous sermons and pamphlets by such preachers as Billy Graham and Jerry Falwell, as well in a book that was an American best seller, Hal Lindsey’s The Late Great Planet Earth (1970). The Left Behind series of novels (the first was published in 1995) by Tim LaHaye and Jerry B. Jenkins, which describe apocalyptic events in particularly violent terms, achieved phenomenal popularity. It is estimated that 40 million copies of books in the Left Behind series were in print by the early 21st century, and a computer game based on the series was also produced.

 

Connection with Bible :

Revelation to John, also called Book of Revelation or Apocalypse of John, abbreviation Revelation, last book of the New Testament. It is the only book of the New Testament classified as apocalyptic literature rather than didactic or historical, indicating thereby its extensive use of visions, symbols, and allegory, especially in connection with future events. Revelation to John appears to be a collection of separate units composed by unknown authors who lived during the last quarter of the 1st century, though it purports to have been written by an individual named John—who calls himself “the servant” of Jesus—at Patmos, in the Aegean Sea. The text includes no indication that John of Patmos and St. John the Apostle are the same person.

 

The book comprises two main parts, the first of which (chapters 2–3) contains moral admonitions (but no visions or symbolism) in individual letters addressed to the seven Christian churches of Asia Minor. In the second part (chapters 4–22:5), visions, allegories, and symbols (to a great extent unexplained) so pervade the text that exegetes necessarily differ in their interpretations. Many scholars, however, agree that Revelation is not simply an abstract spiritual allegory divorced from historical events, nor merely a prophecy concerning the final upheaval at the end of the world, couched in obscure language. Rather, it deals with a contemporary crisis of faith, probably brought on by Roman persecutions. Christians are consequently exhorted to remain steadfast in their faith and to hold firmly to the hope that God will ultimately be victorious over his (and their) enemies. Because such a view presents current problems in an eschatological context, the message of Revelation also becomes relevant to future generations of Christians who, Christ forewarned, would likewise suffer persecution. The victory of God over Satan and his Antichrist (in this case, the perseverance of Christians in the face of Roman persecution) typifies similar victories over evil in ages still to come and God’s final victory at the end of time.

Although Christ is clearly the central figure of Revelation, an understanding of the text presupposes familiarity with Old Testament language and concepts, especially those taken from the books of Daniel and Ezekiel. The author uses the number seven, for example, in a symbolic sense to signify “totality” or “perfection.” References to “a thousand years” (chapter 20) have led some to expect that the final victory over evil will come after the completion of some millennium (see Millennialism).

 

“Apocalyptic literature” refers to the ancient Jewish and Christian documents that share common concerns, themes, and literary devices with the books of Daniel and Revelation and other literary apocalypses. In addition to Daniel and Revelation, prominent literary apocalypses include 1 Enoch, 2 and 3 Baruch, 4 Ezra, the Apocalypse of Abraham, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Apocalypse of Peter. Collaborative research and multiauthor anthologies have contributed greatly to the study of apocalyptic literature. For multiauthor works, this entry generally refers to the entire book, citing especially important essays where appropriate. Some treatments approach apocalyptic literature in terms of the classical literary apocalypses, but the phenomenon of apocalyptic literature extends well beyond those boundaries. This entry does not emphasize discrete apocalyptic texts; instead, it addresses the major questions that have occupied scholars: the historical origins, social settings, development, and interpretation of ancient Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature. During the 1970s and 1980s, consensus emerged regarding two issues. First, a common generic definition regards a literary apocalypse as a narrative account of a revelatory experience involving a visionary and an otherworldly interpreter. Second, whereas “apocalyptic” once functioned as a noun that encompassed all things apocalyptic, interpreters gravitated toward more-precise distinctions between literary apocalypses (genre), apocalyptic eschatology (ideas), apocalypticism (movements), and apocalyptic discourse (modes of communication). Nevertheless, defining apocalyptic literature, whether in terms of a literary genre, a communicative function, or a body of literature with common characteristics, remains a crucial problem in scholarship.

 

What Are the Origins of Apocalyptic Fiction?

Apocalyptic literature has existed for millenia. Major western religions ranging from Christianity, Islam, and Judaism contain multiple tales of a civilization or locale reaching its end. The stories of the garden of Eden, Noah, Sodom and Gomorrah, and the book of Revelation all contain apocalyptic themes. The ancient Mesopatamian epic of Gilgamesh is also concerned with the end of the known world. Apocalyptic stories of Babylon have been written all the way from antiquity to the present.

The Romantic and Gothic authors of the early nineteenth century explored apocalyptic themes, perhaps most famously in Mary Shelley's The Last Man (1826). Edgar Allan Poe's 1839 short story "The Conversation of Eiros and Charmion" centers on disembodied souls discussing the recent destruction of the Earth.

In the twentieth century, the apocalyptic genre grew in the wake of World War I, World War II, and the Cold War nuclear arms race. Novelists, essayists, and filmmakers conjured many an apocalyptic world that offered everything from zombie wars to a desolate post-nuclear wastelands.

7 Common Themes in Apocalyptic Fiction

The themes that govern apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic books tend to involve circumstances that lead to mass unrest, societal breakdown, and widespread death. These includes:

1. Climate change

2.Nuclear holocaust

3.Medical pandemic

4.The rise of sentient robots

5.The destruction of a major city like New York, Los Angeles, or London

6.Endless war

7.A fascist government engaged in mind control

In novels with these themes, a main character is usually tasked with navigating the deathtraps of a world afflicted by the prevailing apocalyptic conditions.

Examples of Apocalyptic Fiction

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have given rise to what many consider the best post-apocalyptic books and post-apocalyptic stories ever written. These books are often also cross-categorized as dystopian fiction and speculative fiction. Some also fit the young adult subgenre. Here are some highlights of the genre, divided by theme:

 

Post-Disaster Wastelands

• The Road by Cormac McCarthy

• The Stand by Stephen King

• Station Eleven by Emily St. John Mandel

• Earth Abides by George R. Stewart

• On the Beach by Nevil Shute

• A Canticle for Leibowitz by Walter M. Miller Jr.

• One Second After by William R. Forstchen

• Alas, Babylon by Pat Frank

• Swan Song by Robert McCammon

• The Chrysalids by John Wyndham

• The Postman by David Brin

• "A Boy and His Dog" by Harlan Ellison

• Oryx and Crake, The Year of the Flood, and MaddAddam, a trilogy by Margaret Atwood

• The Mad Max film series by James McCausland and George Miller

Nature Gone Awry

• The Day of the Triffids by John Wyndha

• The Maze Runner trilogy by James Dashner

• The Sirens of Titan by Kurt Vonnegut

• The Death of Grass by John Christopher

Zombie Apocalypse

• World War Z by Max Brooks

• The Walking Dead, a graphic novel series by Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore, and Charlie Adlard

• I Am Legend by Richard Matheson

• The Passage by Justin Cronin

Dystopian Governments

• The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood

• The Man in the High Castle by Philip K. Dick

• The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins

• The Children of Men by P.D. James  (2424 words)

Works Cited

Carey, Greg. “Apocalyptic Literature - Biblical Studies.” Oxford Bibliographies, 27 July 2011, https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393361/obo-9780195393361-0005.xml. Accessed 8 May 2022.

Lerner, Robert E. “apocalyptic literature | literary genre | Britannica.” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/art/apocalyptic-literature. Accessed 8 May 2022.

“What Is Apocalyptic and Post-Apocalyptic Fiction? - 2022.” MasterClass, 29 September 2021, https://www.masterclass.com/articles/what-is-apocalyptic-and-post-apocalyptic-fiction#zombie-apocalypse. Accessed 8 May 2022.

Paper no. 109 assignment

Paper no.109 Literary Theory & Criticism and Indian Aesthetics

Topic: Brief Introduction to Major Literary Theory (Indian Poetics)

Name:Pandya Mayuri

Roll no.14

Enroll no.4069206420210023

Email id: pandyamayuri0610@gmail.com

Batch:2021 to 2023

Submitted to: S.B.Gardi Department of English MKBU.

 Brief Introduction to Major Literary Theory (Indian Poetics)

Indian poetics theory :

Poetry has been a very precious possession of the mankind from a very primitive period. Poetical production, obviously led to the development of a literary taste and the origin of the science of the Poetics". In poetics we are concerned with the effects of poetry in the mind of the man of literary taste and as such we are to examine certain mental states. The merits of a poetical work is determined by this science on the basis of this mental states. It will be observed that the man of literary taste may very in temperament and the assessment of the merits and the nature of appeal of a certain poetical work may not be the same incase of all the readers. Poetics in so far as it has the states of mind as the subject of study falls at par with introspective psychology the claim of which to be called a science is very insecure in contrast with modern psychology. Thus, poetics is useful insofar as it embodies certain broad generalizations on the nature of poetry and suggests some precisely proven means and techniques for  the production of better poetry.

The Alankara Theory

 The theory of a/ankara seems to have influenced poetic com:positions in Sanskrit. Even the earliest Mahakavyas, as those of Asvaghosa seem to have followed some of the dicta incorporated in the teachings of the a/ankara theorists.1 What ever poetic theories came to be vogue, in actual practice poets seem I~ have had the alankara theory always in mind. Though the theory of alankaras was the oldest in literary speculation, and was superseded by theories of rasa and dhvani. Yet a/ankara was a subject dealt with even by · 3 writers of comparatively recent times. For example, Mammata and Visvanatha, though they were followers of the rasa-dhvani theory, have devoted considerable space to a/ankaras. This would convey an idea of the extent of the influence that the a/ankara school exerted on poetry as well as on the theory of poetry. Bhamaha, the author of Kavya/amkara was the first exponent of this school. After him came Udbhata and Rudrata. Dandin who is accepted to be an adherent of the gunariti school by consensus of opinion also devotes considerable space to the treatment of alankaras. So much so that his importance as an authority on alankara theory is of no mean magnitude.2 Many later th13orists, if they were attempting to cover the field of poetry comprehensively, always included a treatment of a/ankaras also. To mention a few, one may cite Bhoja's Sringara Prakash, Hemcandra's Kavyanusasana and Kesavamisra's A/ankara Sekhara alongwith Mammatta's Kavya Prakash and Visvanatha's Sahityadarpana already mentioned. Apart from these, many treaties have been complied dealing exclusively with alankaras, and one need mention only a few such as A/amkarasavasva of Ruyyaka and Alamkarakaustubh of Visvesvara, in addition to Kuvalayananda of Appayya Diksita already mentioned Bhatti (of Bhattikavya fame) can also be reckoned as an exponent of the a/ankara school though he was a poet. Bhattikavya the purpose of which was to narrate a story in verse and to supply examples for rules of grammar and poetics had devoted considerable attention to the entire set of alankaras in vogue at the time. The meaning of the term 'a/ankara' underwent several changes within the course of time. At first it was a generic term for ordinary figures of speech and of sound such as Upama rupaka, Yamaka etc. i.e. what we designate by the term 'a/ankara' today. By the time of Dandin, the term had acquired a more extensive meaning and had come to designate any factor that produces poetic beauty (Kavyasobha} under this wide concept, everything that brought about poetic appeal (Kavyagunas) could be introduced. Then in next stage, Vamana  use the term synonymous with entire beauty in poetry, i.e. Sundarya.4. Th1s gave the term a still wider connotation. Along With This change of meaning the theory of a/ankara also developed. But the term lost all its wider significance and came to mean a generic term for the two types of figures, viz. arthalankaras and sahrlalankaras. The supporters of the a/ankara school thought of poetry as having a body {kavyasarira) which required to be ornamented. This Kavyasarira on one hand and the set of poetic figures on the other, were two main separate real existence of poetry. The body consisted of a group of words which was not devoid of an agreeable idea.S Hence, the body constituted of two basis elements - (1) sound (sabda) and (2) sense (artha). According to Bhamaha, what constituted Kavya was the combination of these two elements.6 But, this Kavyasarira of poetry never shines without proper ornaments in the form of poetic figures and hence they are essential. Just as the face of a dansel though beautiful, lacks luster if unadorned, so is poetry.? The employment of alanakaras is the characteristic feature of poetry, the factor that converts the matter of fact, prosaic speech into poetic speech, and the criterion for judging its worth. While ordlnctry speech is straight and lacks ornamentation, poetry is marked by a striking turn of expression.Apart from the treatment of figures, the a/ankara theory also devoted attention to the incorporation of poetic qualities (gunadhana) and the exclusion of flaws poetry (dosadana) as expedients that contribute to produce appeal. Hence the whole a/ankara theory is primarily concerned with the formal embellishment of the external aspect of Kavya.B In the hands of later exponents, the a/ankara school deteriorated into an insipid science of mere enumeration of poetic figures. They indulged in the multiplication of alankaras on the grounds of grammatical and hair splitting logical differences, and the theory reduced itself into rigid formal rhetorics. On the whole the a/ankara theory focussed attention solely on the figure as a decorative, thus dwelling upon the formal aspect of poetry at the cost of the content aspect. Obviously, such a discipline would not be competent enough as a critique of poetry and hence the quest was always present for better solutions.9 

Vakrokti Theory :

Kuntaka is the originator of the Vakrokti school of Sanskrit literary theory. He came after Anandvardhan of the 9th century and before Abhinavagupta of the 10th century. His time was the time of high merit of Indian poetics. Dhananjaya and Rajashekhara were his contemporary theorists. The theorists who appeared in the time of Kuntaka contributed a lot to what is considered as modern theories of literature and language. In this context, Ganesh Devy says that Vakrorkti and the Alamkara are two Indian schools which are very close to two Western schools of thought, formalism and new criticism. Ganesh Devy commented, “Vakrokti is a theory of poetry which perceives poetry essentially as terms of the language of its expression. It sees the poetic language as a language of metaphor and suggestive communication”. Hence, Kuntaka’s contribution in poetic thought is not only the matter of poetry or literature but it is about understanding the language, language of poetry and its difference with the language of the common. Kuntaka’s opinions on the language of poetry and overall his study on language makes his position many steps further to the future. He is considered as one of the early language theorists in India. Kuntaka and Vakrokti-Jivitam Anjalika Mukhopadhyay informs in her Bangla translation of Kuntaka’s Vakrokti-Jivitam that, the manuscript of Kuntaka’s Vakrokti-Jivitam was appeared as final version with the initiative and immense work done by Sushil Kumar Dey in 1922. This manuscript was found to be incomplete in four chapters. Some scholars assume this book has its fifth chapter also but it is not proved yet. Scholars assume that Kuntak was a Kashmiri, because some hints were found in this regard. It is also assumed that Kunataka was alive in the time between Anandavardhana and Abhinavagupta. He appeared before Mahimbhatta, as Mahimbhatta mentioned about him in different Slokas. If Mahimbhatta came in between 1020-1060 then Kuntaka was there in between 1000-1030. Kuntaka never mentioned Abhinavagupta and Abhinavagupta also never mentioned about Kuntaka; though he talked about Vakrokti. It means either they were contemporary to each other or Kuntaka came after Abhinavagupta. Mahimbhatta, Hemachandra and Bhoja told that Kuntaka was the author of the Karika and Britti of his Vakrokti-Jivitam, though some scholars have doubt on this because the style of language found in the Karika and the Britti is completely different. 

Kuntaka explains the idea of Sahitya in his Vakrokti-Jivitam. He said, Sahityamanayo Shobha Salitang Prati kapyasou Anyunyatiriktatwamanoharinyabasthiti Kuntaka’s above said statement means that the mode of union is literature. When the word and the meaning exists together and united with each other but do not lose their own identity, characteristics but their union is so heavenly, so spiritual that do not cross the limits of each other’s boundary then they together create the beauty and that beauty is Sahitya (literature). As word and meaning meet with each other in a heavenly mode, there is no need for additional claims of Alamkara or ornament in literature. Hence, Kuntaka did not feel there was any need for Alamkara as a necessary component of literature.

Kuntaka after Bhatrihari, is the most brilliant and rare talent who contributed enormously on the discourse of language study and also on the discourse of poetic language or literary language. In his understanding vakrokti is the vaidagdhyam bhangi or it is deviated or alternative to the speech act of the common people. With his study of poetic language he suggested the how of the birth of beauty. He is that genius in Indian poetics who extends himself from language study to aesthetics to adaptation theory, to translation theory. What we deal with now can be rooted in Kuntaka’s work also. The different types of Vakrokti that he classified are methods of criticism of literature also. It is actually literary discourse proposed by him. He suggested a complete structure of literary study. But not only limited into that he was concerned about the reader’s response, though it is the major concern of all the Sanskrit rhetoricians. Vakrokti is Kavi-Kushalata, art and talent of the poet and poet’s creativity is termed as “Kavi-vyaparavakrata, or art in the poetic process and this is the primary condition of a successful poetry” and therefore rasanubhuti comes into the mind of Sahridaya or the readers (Rao, Sreenivas;). Kuntaka has balanced between the poet’s role and reader’s role in appreciation of poetry. The point of view of the poet and the reader’s accomplishment both are necessary for the emergence of rasanubhuti, according to Kuntaka. 

Riti Theory :

Acharya Vamana who lived during the latter half of the 8th century A. D., was one of the most brilliant thinkers whose contribution to Indian literary criticism was unique and of lasting value. His philosophy-oriented investigation into the constitution and nature of a Kavya revealed certain strikingly new facts and factors. His analysis of a Kavya and treatment of its elements were highly imaginative and refreshingly original. Vamana’s Kavyalankara Sutra rises much above the routine treatises on the science of poetics, and justly claims to be regarded as the first attempt at evolving a philosophy of literary aesthetics. His contemplative mind regarded the Kavya as living human being, a charming young lady, and penetrated deeper and deeper into it until it could catch a glimpse of its Soul. Unlike his predecessors and most of his successors he presented his findings in the form of Sutras following the tradition of the Darsanas which sought to discover the Soul of things–the ultimate principle of the Universe. He was the first poetician who perceived clearly and stated categorically that the differentia of a Kavya as a literary species was Beauty. He was also the first to make a distinction between the natural beauty and artificial beauty of a Kavya, and to trace the two forms of beauty to distinctly different causes. Again it was he that suggested for the first time that a Kavya had two bodies–the gross and the subtle–the Sabda Sarira and the Artha Sarira. Moreover, Vamana was the first critic to discover, define and designate the Soul of a Kavya. He opened his treatise with the famous dictum: Kaavyam graahya malankaaraat; Soundarya malankaarah A Kavya becomes agreeable on account of Alankara and Alankara means Beauty. At the very outset Vamana struck a brilliantly original note by drawing a sharp distinction between Alankara as Beauty and Alankara as a figure of speech. Regarding the relation between Beauty and figures of speech, his views were at variance with those of his predecessors. Dandin maintained: Kaavya sobhaakaraan dharmaan Alankaaraan Prachakshate The factors that produced the Beauty of a Kavya were Alankaras. Vamana disagreed with Dandin and explained that Gunas produced the beauty of Kavya and that the Alankaras only brightened it. Kaavya sobhaayaah kartaaro dharmaah gunaah; Tadatisayaheetavas-tvalankaaraah It is here that Vamana introduced the idea of two kinds of beauty–the natural beauty which proceeded from the Gunas and the artificial beauty caused by the Alankaras. Vamana denoted natural beauty as Sobha and its heightened form as Soundarya. Sobha, Kanti, Deepti, Madhurya, Sukumarata, etc., were mentioned by Bharata as the natural graces–Sahajalankaras–of a youthful lady. The Gunas, Madhurya, etc., which are constitutional to the Kavya should be regarded as its natural graces of Sahajalankaras. Alankaras like Yamaka,Upama, etc., are external and artificial and can at best be structural to the Kavya. Hence Vamana stated that the Gunas were compulsory to the Kavya while the Alankaras were optional. This view influenced the later poeticians so profoundly that the Alankaras gradually came to be relegated to a subordinate position in the scheme of a Kavya. Earlier writers on poetics were not clear as to where the Gunas belonged and what their function was. Taking Dandin’s metaphorical statement that the Gunas were the Pranas of the Vaidarbhi marga, Vamana assumed that they should belong to the Atman of the Kavya and that their function should be to manifest the Beauty aspect of the Soul. Since the Gunas made their appearance in the texture of the Kavya Sarira, Vamana thought it necessary to examine the texture very carefully. His microscopic examination revealed something very important, which his predecessors missed. According to Bhamaba Sabda and Artha together constituted the Kavya. Resorting to a metaphor, Dandin stated that a collection of Padas conveying the desired Artha formed the Sarira of a Kavya. Vamana split the Pada into its components–Sabda and Artha, the gross and subtle materials of the Pada. This led him to the conclusion that the Kavya had two bodies–the gross body consisting of Sabda enclosing the subtle body consisting of Artha. While the Sabda formed the physical body, the Artha provided the physical body. The two bodies may be identified with theSthula and Sukshma Sariras of the Darsanas. This discovery prompted Vamana to explain the nature and function of the Gunas with reference to the two bodies of the Kavya. At this stage we may hazard a conjecture that Vamana assumed the presence of a third body–the Karana Sarira or the Soul vitally functioning within the Sukshma Sarira.

Auchitya Theory :

According to the rules of propriety one of the aims of poetry is to improve the 

life of the common man to show what to do and what not to do , and to help men achieve the goals of life not by common persuasion or resorting to undesirable action, but by a change in the very attitude of mind. Thus literature becomes a means of moral culture, giving proper guidance to individuals and the society, for these are universally accepted facts. In the prologue to „Peter Bell” Wordsworth says:There was a time when all mankind Did Listen with faith sincere;To tuneful tongues in mystery versed Then poets fearlessly rehearsed The wonders of a wild careerIn the writing of poetry, propriety may be likened to the performance of an orchestra. The note of all the singers and the Instruments give out a diversely unified musical Rasa. In poetry, letters, words, sentences, themes, combinations of characters and arrangements of figures of speech harmonize to create a unified piece with all the Rasa‟s intact. Therefore, the study of propriety is based on the assumption that if Rasa was the life of poetry, propriety became the life of Rasa.(arc journal )The concept of auchitya was the Sanskrit alamkarikas' way of explaining this balance and harmony of the components of poetry among themselves and in their relation to its ultimate goal.( ambedkar University) 

A poem is a collection of words used to describe ideas or emotions in a vivid and imaginative style. The Auchitya can be described as the alphabet used to do that.Meaning of Auchitya Auchitya is a Hindi word taken from Sanskrit. It means justification, propriety, decency.

Propriety can be defined in this context as the details or rules of behavior conventionally considered to be correct. Or that which is correct, appropriate, and fitting. The word Auchitya also contains the Hindi word “Uchit” which in English means “appropriate”.Father of Auchitya theory: Kshemendra He introduced Auchitya in his book AuchutiyaVicharCharcha. Kshemendra was born in the present day Kashmir. He is one of the best Sanskrit poets of the 11th century. Kshemendra was the pupil of the famous philosopher and poet Abhinavgupta.

(2947 WORDS)

Works Cited

Dickinson, Emily. “Open University Certificate in Indian Poetics.” Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University, https://baou.edu.in/assets/pdf/CIP_02_slm.pdf. Accessed 8 May 2022.

“Indian Aesthetic Theories.” Gargi College, https://gargicollege.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/08-chapter-2.pdf. Accessed 8 May 2022.

“Paper: 11; Module No: 12: E Text (A) Personal Details: Role Name Affiliation Principal Investigator: Prof. Tutun Mukherjee Unive.” e-PG Pathshala, https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S000013EN/P001455/M019978/ET/1519810361Paper11,Module12,EText.pdf. Accessed 8 May 2022.

“RITI - vamana Acharya Vamana who lived during the latter half of the 8th century AD, was one of the most brilliant thinkers w.” UrbanPro, https://p.urbanpro.com/tv-prod/documents%2Fnull-Riti.pdf. Accessed 8 May 2022.

Paper no. 108 assignment

Paper no.108 American Literature

Topic: Symbolism in For whom the Bell tolls

Name:Pandya Mayuri

Roll no.14

Enroll no.4069206420210023

Email id: pandyamayuri0610@gmail.com

Batch:2021 to 2023

Submitted to: S.B.Gardi Department of English MKBU.

Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961), born in Oak Park, Illinois, started his career as a writer in a 

newspaper office in Kansas City at the age of seventeen. After the United States entered the First World War, he joined a volunteer ambulance unit in the Italian army. Serving at the front, he was wounded, was decorated by the Italian Government, and spent considerable time in hospitals. After his return to the United States, he became a reporter for Canadian and American newspapers and was soon sent back to Europe to cover such events as the Greek Revolution.

During the twenties, Hemingway became a member of the group of expatriate Americans in Paris, which he described in his first important work, The Sun Also Rises (1926). Equally successful was A Farewell to Arms (1929), the study of an American ambulance officer’s disillusionment in the war and his role as a deserter. Hemingway used his experiences as a reporter during the civil war in Spain as the background for his most ambitious novel, For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940). Among his later works, the most outstanding is the short novel, The Old Man and the Sea (1952), the story of an old fisherman’s journey, his long and lonely struggle with a fish and the sea, and his victory in defeat.

Hemingway – himself a great sportsman – liked to portray soldiers, hunters, bullfighters – tough, at times primitive people whose courage and honesty are set against the brutal ways of modern society, and who in this confrontation lose hope and faith. His straightforward prose, his spare dialogue, and his predilection for understatement are particularly effective in his short stories, some of which are collected in Men Without Women (1927) and The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories (1938). Hemingway died in Idaho in 1961.

Introduction of novel

For Whom the Bell Tolls is a novel by Ernest Hemingway published in 1940. It tells the story of Robert Jordan, a young American volunteer attached to a Republican guerrilla unit during the Spanish Civil War. As a dynamiter, he is assigned to blow up a bridge during an attack on the city of Segovia.

It was published just after the end of the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), whose general lines were well known at the time. It assumes the reader knows that the war was between the government of the Second Spanish Republic, which many foreigners went to Spain to help and which was supported by the Communist Soviet Union, and the Nationalist faction, which was supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. In 1940, the year the book was published, the United States had not yet entered the Second World War, which had begun on September 1, 1939, with Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland.

The novel is regarded as one of Hemingway's best works, along with The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to Arms, and The Old Man and the Sea.

Ernest Hemingway uses symbols in For Whom the Bell Tolls to represent the essence of the relationships between major characters in the novel, the vulnerability they experience in hiding, and their physical environment.

Symbolism in For whom the Bell Tolls

Rabbit

In Spain rabbits are commonly used as meat, so they represent nourishment. Pilar cooks rabbit stews for the guerrillas, and they "eat like generals." Rabbits are also sweet little creatures, so in addition to calling Maria guapa, meaning "beautiful," Robert Jordan also calls her "little rabbit," a term of endearment. Both references appear frequently in the novel. However the term "rabbit" is also used to represent the vulnerability of the guerrillas in the mountains. The peasants are hunted down like rabbits, meaning that they are easy prey.

Pines

Pines are part of the landscape in the Spanish Pyrenees, and they serve as protection for the guerrillas, shielding them from gunfire and keeping them out of sight. The ground is covered with pine needles, and they can either cushion a person who is hiding or they can get into one's weaponry, bags, and clothing. The smell of the pines is everywhere in the mountains, and Robert Jordan also enjoys the beauty of the sunlight through the pines to keep him occupied as he waits for the perfect moment to shoot a sentry. As a symbol the pine needles provide a connection to nature and the land of Spain, with which Robert Jordan has a physical relationship that mirrors his relationship with Maria.

Sleeping Robe

The sleeping robe is one of Robert Jordan's prized possessions, and it is extremely warm. Jordan uses it to sleep outside the cave. When Maria comes to make love to him under the sleeping robe, it represents safety and the warmth of their love. At the end of each full day in the novel, they are again safe in each other's arms under the sleeping robe.

Planes

The guerrillas in the mountains are only armed with explosives and guns, but the Fascists are heavily armed thanks to help from other countries. The planes bombing El Sordo on the hill are an example of how unprepared the disorganized Republicans are in fighting such a powerful enemy. Planes are also able to see all of the people hiding below, so for the guerrillas, they represent the vulnerability of hiding in the woods and the hopelessness of being so vulnerable to attack.

Absinthe

Robert Jordan’s flask of absinthe (a green liqueur flavored with anise, a substance similar to licorice) embodies his deep appreciation for sensory pleasures—food, drink, smells, touch, sex, and so on. For Robert Jordan, absinthe “[takes] the place of the evening papers, of all the old evenings in cafés, of all the chestnut trees that would be in bloom now in this month . . . of all the things he had enjoyed and forgotten.” Although Robert Jordan uses absinthe to buy trust and build relationships with the guerrilla fighters, he cannot help begrudging every drop. In the novel’s wartime setting, absinthe represents the attitude that one should take advantage of carnal or sensory pleasures while one has the chance.

 

 

First, death is a primary preoccupation of the novel. When Robert Jordan is assigned to blow up the bridge, he knows that he will not survive it. Pablo and El Sordo, leaders of the Republican guerrilla bands, see that inevitability also. Almost all of the main characters in the book contemplate their own deaths. Before the operation, Pilar reads Robert Jordan's palm, and after seeing it, refuses to comment on what she saw, foreshadowing his untimely demise. Throughout For Whom the Bell Tolls, Hemingway characterizes suicide as an act of cowardice by associating it with characters who are vulnerable or lack strength of spirit. A number of characters contemplate suicide: Karkov always carries pills to use to kill himself if he is ever captured, and Maria carries around a razor blade for the same purpose. Robert Jordan’s father committed suicide, an act that Robert Jordan says he understands but nonetheless condemns. The traits of these characters who contemplate suicide connect the act of suicide to weakness. Robert Jordan’s father is characterized as weak, Maria is young and female, and Karkov is a man of ideas, not action. At the end of the novel, Robert Jordan contemplates suicide but rejects the idea, preferring to struggle to stay awake despite the pain. Robert Jordan’s reliance on inner strength in his rejection of suicide contrasts the othercharacters’ weakness, which demonstrates that the will to continue living requires psychological strength. Second, sacrifice in the face of death abound throughout the novel. Robert Jordan, Anselmo and others are ready to do "as all good men should" – that is, to make the ultimate sacrifice. The oft-repeated embracing gesture reinforces this sense of close companionship in the face of death. An incident involving the death of the character Joaquín's family serves as an example of this theme; having learned of this tragedy, Joaquín's comrades embrace and comfort him, saying they now are his family. Surrounding this love for one's comrades is the love for the Spanish soil. A love of place, of the senses, and of life itself is represented by the pine needle forest floor, both at the beginning and, poignantly, at the end of the novel, when Robert Jordan awaits his death feeling "his heart beating against the pine needle floor of the forest." Suicide always looms as an alternative to suffering. Many of the characters, including Robert Jordan, would prefer death over capture and are prepared to kill themselves, be killed, or kill to avoid it. As the book ends, Robert Jordan, wounded and unable to travel with his companions, awaits a final ambush that will end his life. He prepares himself against the cruel outcomes of suicide to avoid capture, or inevitable torture for the extraction of information and death at the hands of the enemy. Still, he hopes to avoid suicide partly because his father, whom he views as a coward, committed suicide. Robert Jordan understands suicide but doesn't approve of it, and thinks that "you have to be awfully occupied with yourself to do a thing like that." Robert Jordan resolves these tensions at the end of For Whom the Bell Tolls, in his final moments as he faces death. He accepts himself as a man of action rather than thought, as a man who believes in practicality rather than abstract theories. He understands that the war requires him to do some things that he does not believe in. He also realizes that, though he cannot forget the unsavory deeds he has done in the past, he must avoid dwelling on them for the sake of getting things done in the present. Ultimately, Robert Jordan is able to make room in his mind for both his love for Maria and his military mission. By the end of the novel, just before he dies, his internal conflicts and tensions are resolved and he feels “integrated” into the world. . . . You felt that you were taking part in a crusade. . . . It would be as difficult and embarrassing to speak about as a religious experience and yet it was authentic. . . . It gave you a part in something that you could believe in wholly and completely and in which you felt an absolute brotherhood with the others who were engaged in it. (1827 WORDS)

Work cite

telaumbanua, faehusi, editor. https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/276188-an-analysis-of-symbols-in-spanish-civil-d06690ed.pdf.

Hemingway, Ernest. “For Whom The Bell Tolls: Symbols.” SparkNotes, 

Hemingway, Ernest. “For Whom the Bell Tolls.” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_Whom_the_Bell_Tolls. Accessed 7 May 2022.https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/belltolls/symbols/. Accessed 7 May 2022.

White, William, and Philip Young. “Ernest Hemingway – Biographical - NobelPrize.org.” Nobel Prize, https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1954/hemingway/biographical/. Accessed 7 May 2022.

Paper no. 107 assignment

Paper no.107 Twentieth century Literature

from:World War 2 to the end of century

Topic: 1984 as a Dystopian Novel

Name:Pandya Mayuri

Roll no.14

Enroll no.4069206420210023

Email id: pandyamayuri0610@gmail.com

Batch:2021 to 2023

Submitted to: S.B.Gardi Department of English MKBU.

Eric Arthur Blair

 (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950), known by his pen name George Orwell, was an English novelist, essayist, journalist and critic. His work is characterized by lucid prose, social criticism, opposition to totalitarianism, and support of democratic socialism.

Orwell produced literary criticism and poetry, fiction and polemical journalism. He is known for the allegorical novella Animal Farm (1945) and the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949). His non-fiction works, including The Road to Wigan Pier (1937), documenting his experience of working-class life in the industrial north of England, and Homage to Catalonia (1938), an account of his experiences soldiering for the Republican faction of the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), are as critically respected as his essays on politics and literature, language and culture.

Blair was born in India, and raised and educated in England. After school he became an Imperial policeman in Burma, before returning to Suffolk, England, where he began his writing career as George Orwell—a name inspired by a favorite location, the River Orwell. He lived from occasional pieces of journalism, and also worked as a teacher or bookseller whilst living in London. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, his success as a writer grew and his first books were published. He was wounded fighting in the Spanish Civil War, leading to his first period of ill health on return to England. During the Second World War he worked as a journalist and for the BBC. The publication of Animal Farm led to fame during his life-time. During the final years of his life he worked on 1984, and moved between Jura in Scotland and London

Orwell's work remains influential in popular culture and in political culture, and the adjective "Orwellian"—describing totalitarian and authoritarian social practices—is part of the English language, like many of his neologisms, such as "Big Brother", "Thought Police", "Room 101", "Newspeak", "memory hole", "doublethink", and "thoughtcrime".[3][4] In 2008, The Times ranked George Orwell second among "The 50 greatest British writers since 1945".

Introduction of Novel

Nineteen Eighty-Four (also stylised as 1984) is a dystopian social science fiction novel and cautionary tale written by English writer George Orwell. It was published on 8 June 1949 by Secker & Warburg as Orwell's ninth and final book completed in his lifetime. Thematically, it centres on the consequences of totalitarianism, mass surveillance and repressive regimentation of people and behaviours within society.Orwell, a democratic socialist, modelled the totalitarian government in the novel after Stalinist Russia and Nazi Germany. More broadly, the novel examines the role of truth and facts within politics and the ways in which they are manipulated.

The story takes place in an imagined future, the year 1984, when much of the world has fallen victim to perpetual war, omnipresent government surveillance, historical negationism, and propaganda. Great Britain, known as Airstrip One, has become a province of the totalitarian superstate Oceania, ruled by the Party, who employ the Thought Police to persecute individuality and independent thinking.Big Brother, the dictatorial leader of Oceania, enjoys an intense cult of personality, manufactured by the party's excessive brainwashing techniques. The protagonist, Winston Smith, is a diligent and skillful rank-and-file worker at the Ministry of Truth and Outer Party member who secretly hates the Party and dreams of rebellion. He expresses his dissent by writing in a diary and later enters into a forbidden relationship with his colleague Julia and starts to remember what life was like before the Party came to power.

Nineteen Eighty-Four has become a classic literary example of political and dystopian fiction. It also popularised the term "Orwellian" as an adjective, with many terms used in the novel entering common usage, including "Big Brother", "doublethink", "Thought Police", "thoughtcrime", "Newspeak", and "2 + 2 = 5". Parallels have been drawn between the novel's subject matter and real life instances of totalitarianism, mass surveillance, and violations of freedom of expression among other themes Time included the novel on its list of the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to 2005,and it was placed on the Modern Library's 100 Best Novels list, reaching number 13 on the editors' list and number 6 on the readers' list. In 2003, it was listed at number eight on The Big Read survey by the BBC.

 

1984 as a Dystopian Novel

What is Dystopia

Dystopia is utopia's polarized mirror image. While utilizing many of the same concepts as utopia—for example, social stability created by authoritarian regimentation—dystopia reads these ideas pessimistically. Dystopia angrily challenges utopia's fundamental assumption of human perfectibility, arguing that humanity's inherent flaws negate the possibility of constructing perfect societies, except for those that are perfectly hellish. Dystopias are solely fictional, presenting grim, oppressive societies—with the moralistic goal of preventing the horrors they illustrate.

 A single literary work serves as the origin for both utopia and dystopia, the latter by critical examination of the social structures it presents as desirable and good. Thomas More's Utopia (1516) depicts a fictitious country named for Utopus, its first conqueror. Having reshaped a savage land into an ideal society through planning and reason, King Utopus's benevolent reign fulfills Plato's ideal of the philosopher-king expressed in The Republic (c. 400 b.c.e.). Derived from the Greek ou ("not" or "no") and topos (place), a utopia is "no place," a land that does not exist. In addition to its social structure, utopia's pronunciation irresistibly suggests "eutopia" (eu topos ), a "good place" free from civil conflict and social inequality—so a utopia is a good place that does not exist, but which is shown to be possible through social engineering.

By contrast, a dystopia (dis topos ) is a "bad place," deliberately written to frighten the reader; the fact that it, too, is fictitious offers scant comfort, because it is equally possible. More's fictive land has eliminated most class distinctions, but with a concomitant loss of individual freedom and artistic creativity. John Stuart Mill used the term "dystopia" as early as 1868 (Hansard Commons, 12 March) but critics struggled for much of the twentieth century with such unwieldy terminology as "anti-utopia," "utopian satire," "reverse utopias, negative utopias, inverted utopias, regressive utopias, cacoutopias … non-utopias, satiric utopias, and … nasty utopias" (Lewis, p. 27), to say nothing of "George Knox's 'sour utopias in the apocalyptic mode' and George Woodcock's 'negative quasi-Utopias'" (Aldridge, p. 5). Given this confusing proliferation of generic labels, J. Max Patrick may be forgiven for believing that he created the term dystopia in 1952 as the appropriate categorization for Joseph Hall's 1605 Mundus Alter et Idem (Negley and Patrick, p. 298). Patrick unquestionably picked the winner, and dystopia has eclipsed these other labels as the term of choice for a burgeoning literary genre. As dystopian fiction has become more widespread and popular since the end of World War II, critics have grown comfortable in classifying dystopias based on their own generic qualities, rather than explicitly by contrasting them against utopias. The term dystopia has also grown more familiar and is commonly used to refer to any dark or unpleasant future. Finally, by the end of the twentieth century, critics seemed to have abandoned  the effort to segregate dystopia from science fiction, the larger literary 

1984 Dystopian novel

George Orwell’s 1984 is a defining example of dystopian fiction in that it envisions a future where society is in decline, totalitarianism has created vast inequities, and innate weaknesses of human nature keep the characters in a state of conflict and unhappiness. Unlike utopian novels, which hold hope for the perfectibility of man and the possibility of a just society, dystopian novels like 1984 imply that the human race will only get worse if man’s lust for power and capacity for cruelty go uncorrected.

In 1984, characters live in fear of wars, government surveillance, and political oppression of free speech. The London of the novel is dirty and crumbling, with food shortages, exploding bombs, and miserable citizens. The government is an all-powerful force of oppression and control, and crushes the characters’ identities and dreams. This dystopian vision of the future, written thirty-five years before the year the novel is set, suggests that man’s inherent nature is corrupt and repressive. Orwell wrote the book in the aftermath of World War II and the rise of fascism in Germany and the Soviet Union, a Dystopian fiction usually works backward from the present to find an explanation for the fictional society’s decline, and thus to provide a commentary on the reader’s society or a warning of how the future could turn out. In 1984, as Winston works to acquire objects from the past, find spaces without telescreens or microphones in them, and recover memories of the time before the Party, Orwell provides the reader with glimpses of how Winston’s society came to be. We learn about a nuclear war, a revolution, mass famines, and a period of consolidation of power by the Party.

Dystopian novels explore the effects of oppression and totalitarianism on the individual psyche as well as how the individual functions in a repressive society. Winston’s trouble retrieving and trusting his memories illustrates the way the Party has corrupted his emotional life as well as his daily existence, asking the reader to question the nature of memory and individual consciousness. By suggesting that Winston is initially complacent because he can’t remember whether or not life was better and he was happier before the Revolution, the book examines the importance of memory in creating a sense of self.

The first title for this novel was The last man in Europe, but Orwell changed it because Frederic Warburg, publisher, suggested him to do so. It's unknown why he has chosen the title 1984, there is presumption that he might have been switched the numbers( he began writing it in 1948).

The story occurs in London, a province of the state Oceania. Beside Oceania, there are two more totalitarian states that controlled world, Eurasia and Eastasia.

Oceania is a totalitarian state ruled by a group The Party which leader and dictator is Big Brother (resembles Joseph Stalin). Posters of "Big Brother" with the slogan BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU can be found everywhere. Public thought is guided with slogans: War is Piece, Freedom is Slavery, Ignorance is Strength. Oceania's citizens are divided into three classes- The Inner Party, The Outer Party, and the Proles, they have no right either to a personal life or to personal thoughts, his memory is quite cancelled, the past is considered as something to forget. The Party monitored the citizens through Ministry of True. The Thought Police has set hidden microphones, telescines in all living quarters and in every public area how they can find and spy thought criminals. Children are also thought to spy their parents and report their suspected thoughts. In the Oceania, there are four ministries: Ministry of Peace, Ministry of Plenty, Ministry of Truth and Ministry of Love, in Newspeak : Minipax, Miniplenty, Minitrue and Miniluv. Newspeak is the minimalist artificial language invented by The Party.

The protagonist is Winston Smith, a member of the Outer Party, who lives in London and works in the Ministry of Truth. His job is to change historical information, destroy evidence, amend newspaper article and delete people identified as unperson by the Party, all that in order to portray the Party and Big Brother right and correct. He hates the government and he begins writing a diary in which he reveals his anti-government thoughts. The proles, the lowest class in the society who live without police surveillance fascinate him. He becomes friend with the the prole who owns a shop, Mr. Charrington, with whom he talk about the facts and life before the rule of Big Brother. She meets Julia, a worker in another department in the Ministry of Truth, who gives him a paper telling him that she loves him. They secretly begin a romantic relationship, renting the unmonitored room above Mr. Charrington's shop where they can meet and talk about their hopes of freedom.

One day, O' Brien, a member of the Inner Party, approaches Winston and in order to prove his contact with the Brotherhood - opponents of the Party dedicated to fighting Big Brother -gives him a copy of 'The book", a document written by the Emmanuel Goldstein, the leader of the Brotherhood. While Winston and Julia are reading the book in the rented room, the Thought Police arrive there and arrest them. Then, he realizes that Mr. Charrington is a Thought Police agent. They are taken to the Ministry of Love and separately interrogated there. O'Brien, who is actually a government agent, tortures and brainwashes him to accept and believe in Party doctrine. After his release, he becomes a valid member of society who loves only Big Brother.  (2244 WORDS)

Works Cited

Blair, Eric, et al. “George Orwell.” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Orwell. Accessed 7 May 2022.

Orwell, George. “Nineteen Eighty-Four (1984) - Dystopian Novel Description.” Utopia and Dystopia, http://www.utopiaanddystopia.com/dystopian-literature/nineteen-eighty-four/. Accessed 7 May 2022.

Orwell, George. “1984: Literary Context Essay.” SparkNotes, https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/1984/context/literary/1984-and-the-dystopian-novel/. Accessed 7 May 2022.

Sisk, David. “Dystopia.” Encyclopedia.com, 21 May 2018, https://www.encyclopedia.com/literature-and-arts/literature-english/english-literature-20th-cent-present/dystopia. Accessed 7 May 2022.