Article 9

 Shifting Centres and Emerging Margins: Translation and the Shaping of Modernist Poetic Discourse in Indian Poetry

                -E. V. Ramkrishnan 

This chapter examines the role played by translation in shaping a modernist poetic sensibility in some of the major literary traditions of India in the twentieth century, between 1950 and 1970.

The chapter will study examples from Bengali, Malayalam and Marathi, to understand how such translations of modern Western poets were used to breach the hegemony of prevailing literary sensibilities and poetic modes. Many of the major Indian poets - such as Buddhadeb Bose, Agyeya, Gopalakrishna Adiga, Dilip Chitre and Ayyappa Paniker - were also translators Their translations were 'foreignising' translations that disrupted cultural codes that legislated regimes of reading and writing poetry. Also, translations during the early phase of modernism in major Indian languages appeared in little magazines that played a critical role in opening up the poetic discourse. 

Poets such as Neruda and Parra were widely translated into Indian languages during this phase. In this context, translation enacted a critical act of evaluation, a creative act of intervention, and a performative act of legitimation, in evolving a new poetic style during the modernist phase of Indian poetry. 

Translation was integral to the project of modernism in Indian languages, in assimilating a new poetic into the horizon of the 'native' reader's expectations as well as in contesting the claims of prevailing aesthetic norms by breaching its autonomy and authority. 

Communal riots and killings that followed the Partition, the perceived failure of the Nehruvian project of modernity and the consequent erosion of idealism which had inspired an earlier generation of writers committed to socialist realism and Romantic nationalism.

André Lefevere's concept of translation as refraction/ writing, the chapter argues that 'rewritings' or 'refractions' found in the less obvious form of criticism..., commentary, historiography (of the plot summary of famous works cum evaluation type, in which the evaluation is unabashedly based on the current concept of what "good" literature should be), teaching, the collection of works in anthologies, the production of plays' (2000, 235) are also instances of translation. Hence, an essay on T. S. Eliot in Bengali by Sudhindranath Dutta, or a scathing critique in Malayalam on the poetic practices of Vallathol Narayana Menon by Ayyappa Paniker, can also be described as 'translational' writings as they have elements of translation embedded in them.

Modernist writers were responding to the internal dynamics of their own traditions in selectively assimilating an alien poetic that could be regressive or subversive depending on the context and the content.

'Modernity' and 'modernism in the Indian context will need a separate chapter. For the purpose of our discussion, it may be broadly stated that 'modernity' designates an epochal period of wide-ranging transformations brought about by the advent of colonialism, capitalist economy, industrial mode of production. Western models of education, assimilation of rationalized temper, resurgence of nationalist spirit and emergence of social, political, legal, juridical and educational institutions that constituted a normative subjectivity embodied with cosmopolitan and individualist world views.

The project of modernity in India was implicated in colonialism and imperialism. This colonial modernity informed literary and cultural movements, beginning from the reformist movement of the nineteenth century to the modernist movement of the mid-twentieth century.

When ideologies like nationalism and spirituality become apparatuses of the state, a section of the intelligentsia has no option other than to seek refuge in bunkers of individualism'

The term 'modernism' implies a literary/artistic movement that was characterised by experimentation, conscious rejection of the nationalist/ Romantic as well as the popular, and the cultivation of an individualist, cosmopolitan and insular world view.

The aesthetics of modernism in the West had a transnational, metropolitan world view that excluded the claims of the local and the national and made no concession to the popular taste. While the modernism that emerged in Indian literatures shared many of these defining features, its political affiliations and ideological orientations were markedly different.

postcolonial location, the Indian modernism did not share the imperial or metropolitan aspirations of its European counterpart. It invested heavily in regional cosmopolitan traditions. It was oppositional in content and questioned the colonial legacies of the nationalist discourse. It was elitist and formalistic and deeply distrustful of the popular domain.

How are we evaluate the modernisms that emerged in the postcolonial phase in India? Critics such as Simon Gikandi, Susan Friedman, Laura Doyle and Laura Winkiel, and Aparna Dharwadker have argued that non Western modernisms are not mere derivative versions of a European hegemonic practice.

The Eurocentric nature of the discourse on modernism can be laid bare only by documenting the 'modernisms' that emerged in non-Western societies. This will enable us to reimagine the centre-periphery dialectic in terms of a dialogic between peripheries. 

Western modernism and the Indian one, the different trajectories they traversed as a result of the difference in socio- political terrains and the dynamics of the relations between the past and the present in the subcontinent, which has a documented history of more than five thousand years! The problematic that informs this argument is manifest in the critiques of Eurocentric accounts of modernism by Gikandi, Friedman, Doyle and Winkiel, and Rebecca L. Walkonwitz. in different ways.

In the context of Bengali, as Amiya Dev has observed, 'It was not because they imbibed modernism that the adhunik [modernist] Bengali writers turned away from Rabindranath; on the contrary, Modernism was the means by which they turned away Rabindranath and they had to turn away, for their history demanded it

(in Ananthamurthy et al 1992, 7). Commenting on the role of Kannada modernists, R. Sasidhar writes,

If European modernism was drawn between the euphoric and the reactive, in Kannada the precipitate modernism was drawn between the Brahminical and the non-Brahminical. Just as the cuphoric and the reactive modernisms were part of the internal dynamics of modernism itself, so also the Brahmanical and the non-Brahmanical modernisms in Kannada were part and parcel of a modernism that came as a reaction to the Nehruvian environment. (in Satchidanandan 2001, 34)

Translation enables us to delineate the complex artistic and ideological undercurrents that shaped the course of modernism in Indian literatures. To discuss this, we will look at three representative modernist authors from three separate Indian literary traditions - Sudhindranath Dutta (1901-60) from Bengali, B. S. Mardhekar (1909-56) from Marathi and Ayyappa Paniker (1936-2004) from Malayalam These authors help us see the chronological trajectory of modernism across Indian literatures.

Translation is central to the modernist poetic as it unfolded in these literary traditions. Each of these three authors was bilingual and wrote essays in English as well as their own languages, outlining their new, poetic, thus preparing the reader for new poetic modes.

Buddhadeb Bose, another Bengali modernist, rendered 112 poems of Charles Baudelaire's The Flowers of Evil into Bengali, apart from translating Rainer Maria Rilke, Friedrich Hölderlin, Ezra Pound, e. e. cummings, Wallace Stevens and Boris Pasternak Ayyappa Paniker translated European poets into Malayalam,) while B. S. Mardhekar's Arts and the Man (which was published in England in 1937) was a treatise on formalist aesthetic that legitimated modernist practice.

Their profound understanding of Western philosophy and artistic/literary traditions equipped these three writers with the critical capacity to see the significance and limitations of the West.

modernist poetic is argued in a persuasive manner in the context of the everyday world and its needs. In another essay, 'The Highbrow he observes, 'I agree with Virginia Woolf that creative artists must from time to time seek shelter within the much maligned Ivory Tower (9).'

Dutta highlights Eliot's commitment to tradition as 'revolutionary in the fullest sense of the term'. He adds, 'But I am convinced that if civilization is to survive the atomic war, Mr. Eliot's ideal must become widely accepted, so that in the oases that may escape destruction it may be cherished through the interregnum'

Modernism in India was part of a larger decolonising project.It was not a mindless celebration of Western values and the European, avant-garde.

Kurkshetram is a poem of 294 lines in five sections. The opening lines of the Bhagavad Gita are cited as the epigraph of the poem, thus setting a high moral and critical tone in relation to contemporary life and society. As in Eliot's The Waste Land, Kurukshetram's opening lines communicate a pervasive decline of moral values and a disruption of the organic rhythms of society:

The eyes suck and sip

The nerves drink up the coursing blood,

The tears that spurt.

And it is the bones that

Eat the marrow here

While the skin preys on the bones

The roots turn carnivore As they prey on the flowers

Clutches and tears at the roots. (Paniker 1985, 14-15)

While the earth in bloom

The title, 'Kurukshetram', signifies the place where the epic battle that forms the central theme of the Mahabharata took place. The poem progresses through broken images from contemporary life, but there are also redemptive memories of forgotten harmonies that recur through the metaphor of the dream. The evocative rhythms of the poem provoke a profound disquiet that cannot be particularised.

The second section of the poem retreats into a private space, away from these public images. The inner movement of the poetic structure signifies the undercurrents of a conflict that cannot be paraphrased in moral terms.

The third section returns to the public world of conflicts. The mythical characters of Sugriva, Vibhishana, Vashistha, Lord Ram, Arjuna and Oedipus are invoked in this section. The wisdom encoded in myths is now inaccessible to modern men and women, who are diminished into fragmented dehumanised figures. Since the self inhabits a violated space, it lacks the power to know itself.

It is important to understand the indigenous roots/routes of modernity and modernism in all the three writers discussed above. They partake of the logic of a postcolonial society which had already developed internal critiques of Western modernity.

Conclusion

The modernist subject was fragmented and fractured in the Indian context, but not for reasons that constituted fragmented selves in the Western context. Colonial modernity operated within the Indian context as a realm of desire which brought into being a new social imaginary. The formalist poetic of modernist poetry corresponded to an inner world of desire that produced a language bristling with disquiet and angst. Translation enabled the displaced self of modernity to locate itself in a language that was intimately private and, also, outspokenly public. The idiom of their expression afforded the possibility of self-knowledge through epiphanies that brought 'momentary stays against confusion' (Ramanan 1996, 56). Thus, language became, for the modernists, the only reality that they could relate to. Their moment of re-cognition, enabled by the discourses of 'Western' modernism, was postcolonial in its essence. The self-reflexive mo(ve)ment was also made possible by the carrying across of not content or form, but an interior mode of being that questioned the prevailing limits of freedom.

sem4 comparative study.pptx from Khushbumakwana3

article number 8

This blog is on Thinking activity given by Dr. Dilip Barad sir on Comparative Literature and Translation studies. 

In this paper our teacher gave a task to present a partner presentation on every article it is divided by the teacher.

Unit 4 we have two article 

SITING TRANSLATION

History,Post-structuralism,  and The Colonial Context

-Tejaswini Niranjana

In a post-colOnial context the problematic of translation becomes a significant site for raising questions of representation, power, and historicity. The context is one of contesting and contested stories attempting to account for, to recount,the asymmetry and inequality of relations between peoples,races, languages. the discourses of philosophy, history, anthropology philology, linguistics, and literary interpretation, the colonial "subject constructed through technologies or practices of power/knowledge is brought into being within multiple discourses and on multiple sites.

Western philosophical notions of reality, representation, and knowledge. Really is seen as something unproblematic, "out there"; knowledge involves a representation of this reality; and representation provides direct, unmediated access to a transparent reality. 

Her concern here is to explore the place of translation in contemporary Euro-American literary theory (using the name of this "discipline" in a broad sense) through a set of interre- lated readings. I argue that the deployment of "translation" in the colonial and post-colonial contexts shows us a way of questioning some of the theoretical emphases of poststructuralism.

Chapter 1 outlines the problematic of translation and its relevance to the post-colonial situation. Reading the texts of different kinds of colonial translators. 

In chapter 2, she examines how "translation" works in the traditional discourse of translation studies and in ethnographic writing. Caught in an idiom of fidelity and be- trayal that assumes an unproblematic notion of representa- fion, translation studies fail to ask questions about the histor- icity of translation; ethnography, on the other hand, has recently begun to question both the innocence of representation and the longstanding asymmetries of translation. 

In chapters 3, 4, and 5, my main focus is the work of Paul de Man Jacques Derrida, and Walter Benjamin (an earlier critic who is becoming increasingly important to post-structuralist thinkers). My analysis shows how translation functions as a "figure" in all three thinkers, becoming synonymous or associated with a major preoccupation in each: allegory or literature in de Man, the problematics of representation and intentionality in Derrida, and the question of materialist historiography in Benjamin. Pointing out the configurations of translation and history in Benjamin's work, she describes the kind of reading provided by de Man and Derrida of Benjamin's important essay "The Task of the Translator." Her argument is that Walter Benjamin's early writings on translation are trapped in significant ways into his later essays on the writing of history, a trope that goes unrecognized by both de Man and Derrida.

The word translation not just to indicate an interlingual process but to name an entire problematic. It is a set of questions, perhaps a "field," charged with the force of all the terms used, even by the traditional discourse on translation, to name the problem, to translate translation. Translatio (Latin) and metapherein (Greek) at once suggest movement, disruption, displacement. So does Übersetzung (German).

Her study of translation does not make any claim to solve the dilemmas of translators. It does not propose yet another way of theorizing translation to enable a more foolproof "method" of "narrowing the gap" between cultures; it seeks rather to think through this gap, this difference, to explore the positioning of the obsessions and desires of translation, and thus to describe the economies within which the sign of translation circulates. Her concern is to probe the absence, lack, or repression of an awareness of asymmetry and historicity. 

The post-colonial distrust of the liberal-humanist rhetoric of progress and of universalizing master narratives has obvious affinities with post-structuralism.

That translation became part of the colonial discourse of Orientalism is obvious from  British efforts to obtain information about the people ruled by the merchants of the East India Company.

As translator and scholar, Jones was responsible for the most influential introduction of a textualized India to Europe, Within three months of his arrival, the Asiatic Society held its first meeting with Jones as president and Warren Hastings. the governor-general, as patron. It was primarily through the efforts of the members of the Asiatic Society, themselves ad- ministrators and officials of the East India Company's Indian Government, that translation would help "gather in" and "rope off" the Orient.

Grand Jury at Calcutta, his letters, and his "Oriental" poems to show how he contributes to a historicist, teleological model of civilization that, coupled with a notion of translation presupposing transparency of representation. 

The most significant nodes of Jones's work are (a) the need for translation by the European, since the natives are unreliable Interpreters of their own laws and culture; (b) the desire to be a lawgiver, to give the Indians their "own" laws; and (c) the desire to "purify" Indian culture and speak on its behalf. The interconnections between these obsessions are extremely complicated. 

In Jones's construction of the "Hindus," they appear as a submissive, indolent nation unable to appreciate the fruits of freedom, desirous of being ruled by an absolute power, and sunk deeply in the mythology of an ancient religion. In a let- ter, he points out that the Hindus are "incapable of civil liberty," for "few of them have an idea of it, and those, who have, do not wish it"

The idea of the "submissive" Indians, their inability to be free, and the native laws that do not permit the question of liberty to be raised are thus brought together in the concept of Asian despotism.

Indians thought of liberty as a curse rather than a blessing, since they certainly could not rule themselves or administer their own laws, these laws had first to be taken away from them and "translated" before they could benefit from them.

William Ward's preface to his three-volume A View of the History, Literature, and Mythology of the Hindoos is instructive for the virulence with which it attacks the depravity and im- morality of the natives.

Ward does not see the present state of the Hindus as a falling away from a former Golden Age. Instead, like James Mill, who quotes him approvingly and often, Ward sees the Hindus as corrupt by nature, lacking the means of education and improvement. 

Macaulay did not think it necessary for the entire Indian populace to learn English: the function of anglicized education was "to form a class who may be interpreters between us (the British) and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons, Indian.in.blood.and.colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect."

A Gauri Viswanathan has pointed out, the introduction of English education can be seen as "an embattled response to historical and political pressures: to tensions between the English Parliament and the East India Company, between Parliament and the missionaries, between the East India Company and the native elite classes. Extending her ar- gument, I would like to suggest that the specific resolution of these tensions through the introduction of English education was enabled discursively by the colonial practice of transla- tion. European translations of Indian texts prepared for a Western audience provided the "educated" Indian with a whole range of Orientalist image) Even when the anglicized Indian spoke a language other than English, "he" would have preferred, because of the symbolic power conveyed by En- glish, to gain access to his own past through the translations and histories circulating through colonial discourse. English education also familiarized the Indian with ways of seeing, techniques of translation, or modes of representation that came to be accepted as "natural"

The construction of the colonial subject presupposes what Pierre Bourdieu has called "symbolic domination." Symbolic domination, and its violence, effectively reproduce the social order through a combination of recognition and misrecogni tion (reconnaissance and méconnaissance)-recognition that the dominant language is legitimate (one thinks again of the use of English in India) and "a misrecognition of the fact that this language. 

The notion of auto colonization implicit in the story about the "native boys" begging for English books could be ex- plored in greater depth through Antonio Gramsci's concept of hegemony. 

My central concern here is not to elaborate on the battle for "history" now being staged in Euro-American theory but to ask a series of questions from a strategically "partial" per- spective that of an emergent postcolonial practice willing to profit from the insights of post-structuralism, while at the same time demanding ways of writing history in order to make sense of how subjectification operates. 

History in the text of Post-structuralism is a repressive force that obliterates difference and belongs in a chain that includes meaning, truth, presence, and logos.

If representation stands for the reappropriation of presence, translation emerges as the sign for what Derrida would call "dissemination"

The point is not just to criticize these characterizations as "inadequate" or "untrue"; one should attempt to show the complicity of the representations with colonial rule and their part in maintaining the asymmetries of imperialism.

Clearly, the notion of hybridity, which is of great importance for a Subaltern critique of historiography as well as for a critique of traditional notions of translation, is both "ambiguous and historically complex."" To restrict "hybridity," or what I call "living in translation," to a post-colonial elite is to deny the pervasiveness, however heterogeneous, of the transformations wrought across class boundaries by colonial and neocolonial domination. This is not to present a meta- narrative of global homogenization, but to emphasize the need to reinvent oppositional cultures in non essentializing ways. Hybridity can be seen, therefore, as the sign of a post-colonial theory that subverts essentialist models of reading while it points toward a new practice of translation.

I am sharing 'I am sharing 'Introduction _ History in Translation ' with you' with you.pptx from HinabaSarvaiya

For Article 9 Shifting Centres and Emerging Margins: Translation and the Shaping of Modernist Poetic Discourse in Indian Poetry

                -E. V. Ramkrishnan  click here

The Joys of Motherhood

Hello readers :) 

                       This blog is a response blog task given by my teacher. In this blog we have to answer any one question given  it is an African literature paper novel. 

Introduction of Author

A Nigerian-born author who has resided in England since 1962, Emecheta is best known for her novels that address the difficulties facing modern African women forced into traditional and subservient roles. Emecheta's heroines often challenge the restrictive customs imposed on them and aspire to economic and social independence. Although some critics have categorized Emecheta's works as feminist in nature, Emecheta rejects the label, stating, "I have not committed myself to the cause of African women only. I write about Africa as a whole."

Three of Emecheta's works focus on events in her life. Her first two novels, In the Ditch and Second-Class Citizen (1975), are loosely based on her own experiences as a single parent and are regarded as her most accomplished works. Both books revolve around a young Nigerian woman named Adah and her search for a better quality of life. In the first book, Emecheta depicts Adah's struggle to raise five small children while depending on welfare payments, attending college, and attempting to complete her first novel. The second book recounts Adah's immigration to England and her marriage to a domineering man who attempts to thwart her educational and professional aspirations. Their marriage dissolves as Adah, influenced by the women's liberation movement, begins to assert her individuality. Head above Water (1986) is a nonfiction work detailing Emecheta's childhood in a small Nigerian village, her career as a social worker in London, and the problems she encountered in securing a publisher for her writings.

About Novel

Feminism is one of the oldest movements in global history. There’s no single definition, but feminism boils down to ending gender discrimination and bringing about gender equality. Within this goal, there are many types of feminism. Instead of describing them in isolation from each other, feminism can be divided into “waves.”

The wave metaphor is the most common explanation for feminism’s movements, though it’s not without flaws. It can oversimplify a complicated history of values, ideas, and people that are often in conflict with each other. With this simplification, one might think feminism’s history is a straightforward arc. The reality is much messier. There are many sub-movements building on (and fighting with) each other. That being said, the wave metaphor is a useful starting point. It doesn’t tell the whole story, but it helps outline it. 

The Joys of Motherhood is a novel written by Buchi Emecheta. It was first published in London, UK, by Allison & Busby in 1979 and was first published in Heinemann's African Writers Series in 1980 and reprinted 1982, 2004, 2008. The basis of the novel is the "necessity for a woman to be fertile, and above all to give birth to sons".[1] It tells the tragic story of Nnu-Ego, daughter of Nwokocha Agbadi and Ona, who had a bad fate with childbearing. This novel explores the life of a Nigerian woman, Nnu Ego. Nnu's life centres on her children and through them, she gains the respect of her community. Traditional tribal values and customs begin to shift with increasing colonial presence and influence, pushing Ego to challenge accepted notions of "mother", "wife", and "woman". Through Nnu Ego's journey, Emecheta forces her readers to consider the dilemmas associated with adopting new ideas and practices against the inclination to cleave to tradition. In this novel, Emecheta reveals and celebrates the pleasures derived from fulfilling responsibilities related to family matters in child bearing, mothering, and nurturing activities among women. However, the author additionally highlights how the 'joys of motherhood' also include anxiety, obligation, and pain.

Feminism

Emecheta’s work is not strictly feminist in the western sense of the term, and she does not fully identify with Western feminist ideals. Many African women have not typically viewed themselves as domestic drudges, confined to the endless domestic cycles of childbearing and child rearing. Instead, Emecheta and others have pointed out that African women have a different cultural understanding of the role and function of work, identifying themselves as powerful economic forces who have always been a significant source of the family’s income.

Still, Emecheta does not back down when it comes to critiquing the often repressive attitudes commonly held by many Ibo men of her generation. The Ibo, sometimes referred to as the Igbo, are a group of people who originally settled in southeastern Nigeria. Traditional Ibo culture called for strict regulation of women’s roles and a proscribed subservience to men. In her novels, Emecheta is often critical of authoritarian Ibos who take advantage of male privilege, citing it as a justification for the oppression of their wives and daughters. Emecheta has always defended polygamy, or multiple marriage, seeing the system as a necessary community that aids in the rearing of children. However, she argues that it is not a presumed right that every man holds, especially when the husband is unable to afford and support additional family members. She sees the unquestioning application of repressive attitudes and behaviors as systematically silencing women and barring them from realizing their full potential.

The Joys of Motherhood unfolds events in Nigeria during the period of time that it was invaded and colonized by British imperialism “in 1930 and moving forward to the time of independence from colonial rule” (Killam, 2004, p. 42). Killam (2004) asserts that until late 18 century contact between Europe and Africa was limited to slave trade. But since 1780, a new interest appeared. They sought a market to offer their goods and to develop their religion in Africa. Through developing the theory of social Darwinism, this idea was formed by Europeans that they were superior. Therefore, they were responsible to give Africans identity, civilization, religion and rule. That was the way they justified colonial expansion in Africa. As a result, African formal colonization began from 1885     Western countries establish themselves as the legitimate rulers of the orient, in other words, they believe that they have the power to build their empire. They are increasingly of the opinion that Third World people are in capable of self-government. Consequently, they have the right both to make rules for them and to control them and to bring about changes in their lives as well  The European invasion and colonization of Africa in the nineteenth century had an enormous impact on Nigerian history because it brought about a series of social, cultural, economic and political changes in Nigeria.    In the novel, Emecheta carefully depicts the way in which the colonial discourse brings about changes such as religious ones in Lagos through the institutions: “the workers are determined to be off only half a day in the week and that is on Sundays in order to attend the church. The marriage should be done in the church, otherwise; it is regarded as an illegal marriage. When Nnu Ego is pregnant for the first time, Nnaif becomes worried that he may lose his job because they didn’t marry in the church. Moreover, Nnu Ego, in the court, is told to swear by the holy Bible not by her chi”.  Hence, Emecheta highlights how carefully the West develops its culture and rules through the institutions. 

Nnu Ego lives in a society, in which a woman's identity is defined in terms of her relationship with man and her definition as a mother of many children. As Emecheta notices, “gender inequality” in the colonial and indigenous patriarchal society, determines the value of human beings: male child is attached to excess importance while female child is considered as “other”. We are told how Adaku is disdained by Nwakusor because she is not the mother of the male child. She was regarded as one without any historical identity when she was told, “you Adaku, the daughter of whoever you are”  So, a female's identity is constructed through her relationship with a patriarchal society. Since "identity'' has a close-knit relationship with the place it lives in, a female's identity is constructed through her relationship with a patriarchal society.   

Nnu Ego protagonist she was representing all African women and their conditions and also she was more in neo feminist than called her as feminist thinking because in their village Ogboli village in the background women are going for the field work but when colonized ruler came they can change everything then Male are work but for Nnu she was working and she was give her children best future she was facing many problems like first marriage not able to conceive baby then first child died then her husband not taking their responsibility but she was taking care of everyone she was not relayed on husband for her and family life born in village and their lived in city. In this novel there are three women represent feminism Nnu Ego with her born to death she was struggle as well as never complain about anything she was work and earn money for her children then her mother Ona she was strong and woman with male power then Adaku when she was having one daughter and realise that she was not having any source for money then she decided to become prostitute represent independent woman. 

(Words 1544) 

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Research Methodology

Hello readers :) 

                       This blog is given by my teacher on Research Mythology unit two on Plagiarism and Academic Integrity. In this blog we have to answer two questions. 

Question 1

What is Plagiarism and What are its Consequences? 

What is Plagiarism

Derived from the Latin word plagiarius ("kidnapper"), to plagiarize means "to commit literary theft" and to "present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source" (Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary [11th ed.; 2003; print]). 

CONSEQUENCES OF PLAGIARISM

A complex society that depends on well-informed citizens strives to maintain high standards of quality and reliability for documents that are publicly circulated and used in government, business, industry, the professions, higher education, and the media. Because research has the power to affect opinions and actions, responsible writers com- pose their work with great care. They specify when they refer to an- other author's ideas, facts, and words, whether they want to agree with, object to, or analyze the source. This kind of documentation not only recognizes the work writers do; it also tends to discourage the circulation of error, by inviting readers to determine for themselves whether a reference to another text presents a reasonable account of what that text says. Plagiarists undermine these important public values. Once detected, plagiarism in a work provokes skepticism and even outrage among readers, whose trust in the author has been broken.

Question 2 

                What is Plagiarism? Write in details with its consequences, forms

Derived from the Latin word plagiarius ("kidnapper"), to plagiarize means "to commit literary theft" and to "present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source" (Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary [11th ed.; 2003; print]). Plagiarism involves two kinds of wrongs. Using another person's ideas, information, or expres- sions without acknowledging that person's work constitutes intellec- tual theft. Passing off another person's ideas, information, or expres- sions as your own to get a better grade or gain some other advantage constitutes fraud. Plagiarism is sometimes a moral and ethical offense rather than a legal one since some instances of plagiarism fall outside the scope of copyright infringement, a legal offense (see 2.7.4).

CONSEQUENCES OF PLAGIARISM

A complex society that depends on well-informed citizens strives to maintain high standards of quality and reliability for documents that are publicly circulated and used in government, business, industry, the professions, higher education, and the media. Because research has the power to affect opinions and actions, responsible writers com- pose their work with great care. They specify when they refer to an- other author's ideas, facts, and words, whether they want to agree with, object to, or analyze the source. This kind of documentation not only recognizes the work writers do; it also tends to discourage the circulation of error, by inviting readers to determine for themselves whether a reference to another text presents a reasonable account of what that text says. Plagiarists undermine these important public values. Once detected, plagiarism in a work provokes skepticism and even outrage among readers, whose trust in the author has been broken.

The charge of plagiarism is a serious one for all writers. Plagiarists are often seen as incompetent-incapable of developing and express- ing their own thoughts-or, worse, dishonest, willing to deceive others for personal gain. When professional writers, such as journalists, are exposed as plagiarists, they are likely to lose their jobs, and they are certain to suffer public embarrassment and loss of prestige. Almost always, the course of a writer's career is permanently affected by a single act of plagiarism. The serious consequences of plagiarism re- flect the value the public places on trustworthy information.

Students exposed as plagiarists may suffer severe penalties, rang- ing from failure in the assignment or in the course to expulsion from school. This is because student plagiarism does considerable harm. For one thing, it damages teachers' relationships with students, turn- ing teachers into detectives instead of mentors and fostering suspicion instead of trust. By undermining institutional standards for assigning grades and awarding degrees, student plagiarism also becomes a mat- ter of significance to the public. When graduates' skills and knowl- edge fail to match their grades, an institution's reputation is damaged. For example, no one would choose to be treated by a physician who obtained a medical degree by fraud. Finally, students who plagiarize harm themselves. They lose an important opportunity to learn how to write a research paper. Knowing how to collect and analyze infor- mation and reshape it in essay form is essential to academic success. This knowledge is also required in a wide range of careers in law, journalism, engineering, public policy, teaching, business, government, and not-for-profit organizations. Plagiarism betrays the personal element in writing as well. Discussing the history of copyright, Mark Rose notes the tie between our writ- ing and our sense of self-a tie that, he believes, influenced the idea that a piece of writing could belong to the person who wrote it. Rose says that our sense of ownership of the words we write "is deeply rooted in our conception of ourselves as individuals with at least a modest grade of singularity, some degree of personality" (Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright [Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1993; print; 142]). Gaining skill as a writer opens the door to learning more about yourself and to developing a personal voice and approach in your writing. It is essential for all student writers to understand how to avoid committing plagiarism.

FORMS OF PLAGIARISM

The most blatant form of plagiarism is to obtain and submit as your own a paper written by someone else (see 2.3). Other, less conspicuous forms of plagiarism include the failure to give appropriate acknowledg- ment when repeating or paraphrasing another's wording, when taking a particularly apt phrase, and when paraphrasing another's argument or presenting another's line of thinking.

Repeating or Paraphrasing Wording

Suppose, for example, that you want to use the material in the follow- ing passage, which appears on page 625 of an essay by Wendy Martin in the book Columbia Literary History of the United States.

ORIGINAL SOURCE

Some of Dickinson's most powerful poems express her firmly held

conviction that life cannot be fully comprehended without an under- standing of death. If you write the following sentence without documentation, you have plagiarized because you borrowed another's wording without ac-

knowledgment, even though you changed its form:

PLAGIARISM

Emily Dickinson firmly believed that we cannot fully comprehend life unless

we also understand death. But you may present the material if you cite your source:

As Wendy Martin has suggested, Emily Dickinson firmly believed that we cannot fully comprehend life unless we also understand death (625).

The source is indicated, in accordance with MLA style, by the name

of the author ("Wendy Martin") and by a page reference in parenthe-

ses, preferably at the end of the sentence. The name refers the reader to the corresponding entry in the works-cited list, which appears at the end of the paper.

Martin, Wendy. "Emily Dickinson." Columbia Literary History of the United States. Emory Elliott, gen. ed. New York: Columbia UP, 1988. 609-26.

Print.

Taking a Particularly Apt Phrase

ORIGINAL SOURCE

Everyone uses the word language and everybody these days talks about culture.... "Languaculture" is a reminder, I hope, of the nec- essary connection between its two parts.... (Michael Agar, Lan- guage Shock: Understanding the Culture of Conversation [New York: Morrow, 1994; print; 60])

If you write the following sentence without documentation, you have committed plagiarism because you borrowed without acknowledg- ment a term ("languaculture") invented by another writer:

PLAGIARISM

At the intersection of language and culture lies a concept that we might call "languaculture."

But you may present the material if you cite your source:

At the intersection of language and culture lies a concept that Michael

Agar has called "languaculture" (60).

In this revision, the author's name refers the reader to the full descrip- tion of the work in the works-cited list at the end of the paper, and the parenthetical documentation identifies the location of the borrowed material in the work.

Agar, Michael. Language Shock: Understanding the Culture of Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1994. Print.

Paraphrasing an Argument or Presenting a Line of Thinking

ORIGINAL SOURCE

Humanity faces a quantum leap forward. It faces the deepest so- cial upheaval and creative restructuring of all time. Without clearly recognizing it, we are engaged in building a remarkable civilization from the ground up. This is the meaning of the Third Wave. Until now the human race has undergone two great waves of change, each one largely obliterating earlier cultures or civilizations and replacing them with the ways of life inconceivable to those who came before. The First Wave of change-the agricultural revolution- took thousands of years to play itself out. The Second Wave-the rise of industrial civilization-took a mere hundred years. Today history is even more accelerative, and it is likely that the Third Wave will sweep across history and complete itself in a few decades. (Alvin Toffler, The Third Wave [1980; New York: Bantam, 1981; print; 10])

If you write the following sentence without documentation, you have

committed plagiarism because you borrowed another writer's line of

thinking without acknowledgment:

PLAGIARISM

There have been two revolutionary periods of change in history: the agricultural revolution and the industrial revolution. The agricultural revolution determined the course of history for thousands of years; the industrial civilization lasted about a century. We are now on the threshold of a new period of revolutionary change, but this one may last for only a few decades.

But you may present the material if you cite your source:

According to Alvin Toffler, there have been two revolutionary periods of change in history: the agricultural revolution and the industrial revolution. The agricultural revolution determined the course of history for thousands of years; the industrial civilization lasted about a century. We are now on the threshold of a new period of revolutionary change, but this one may last for only a few decades (10).

In this revision, the author's name refers the reader to the full descrip- tion of the work in the works-cited list at the end of the paper, and the parenthetical documentation identifies the location of the borrowed material in the work.

Toffler, Alvin. The Third Wave. 1980. New York: Bantam, 1981. Print.

Words (1720) 

Literature Review

Hello readers :) 

This is response blog task given by Dr. Dilip Barad in this task we have to watch three video's on literature review and answer two question which is given below to watching and reading about this blog click here. 

What is literature review Define? 

A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. Occasionally researchers are asked to write one as a separate assignment (sometimes in the form of an annotated bibliography), but more often it is part of the introduction to an essay, research report, or also a chapter in M.Phil/Ph.D.thesis. Purpose - to convey what knowledge and ideas what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are their strengths and weaknesses  As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concepts defined by a guiding concept (e.g., our research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis).It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries.

Why do a Literature Review? 

To identify gaps identify gaps in the research area to avoid reinventing the wheel avoid reinventing the wheel to carry on from where others have already carry on from where others have already completed,to identify other people working in the same identify other people working in the same fields, to fathom the depth of knowledge fathom the depth of knowledge of your subject area. 

Tamil Poem

 Article On Translating a Tamil Poem 

Abstract

The subject of this paper is not the fascinating external history of this  literature, but translation, the transport of poems from classical Tamil to  modern English; the hazards, the damages in transit, the secret paths, and  the lucky bypasses.  

The chief difficulty of translation is its impossibility. Frost once even  identified poetry as that which is lost in translation. Once we accept that  as a premise of this art, we can proceed to practice it, or learn (endlessly)  todo so. As often as not, this love, like other loves, seems to be begotten  by Despair upon Impossibility, in Marvell's phrase. Let me try to define this 'impossibility' a little more precisely. 

Key points

The  sound system of Tamil is very different from English.Tamil has long and short vowels, but English  (or most English dialects) have diphthongs and glides. Tamil has double  consonants that occur in English only across phrases like 'hot tin' and 'sit  tight.' Such features are well illustrated by the above poem in Tamil.  Tamil has no initial consonant clusters, but English abounds in them:  'school, scratch, splash, strike', etc. English words may end in stops, as  in 'cut, cup, tuck,' etc.

Tamil meter depends on the presence of long vowels  and double consonants, andon closed and open syllables defined by such  vowels and consonants. For instance, In The first word of the above poem,  a~ay, the first syllable is heavy because it is closed (an-), the second is  heavy because it has a long vowel (-~Zly). There is nothing comparable  in English to this way of counting feet and combinations (marked in the text above by spaces).

English has a long tradition of end-rhymes-but Tamil has a long tradition of second syllable consonant-rhymes.

The constraints of French require you  to choose a gender for every noun, but English does not. The lies and  ambiguities of one language are not those of another. 

When we attend to syntax, we see that Tamil syntax is mostly left branching. English syntax is, by and large, rightward. Even a date like  'the 19th of June, 1988,' when translated into Tamil, would look like  '1988, June, 19.' A phrase like  

A              B      C      D      E  

The man who came from Michigan  

would be 'Michigan-from come-[past tense-who man':  

michigan-irundu var~d-a manidarl.  

The Tamil sentence is the mirror image of the English one: what is A B  C D E in the one would be (by and large) ED C B A in Tamil.

If poetry is made out of, among other things, 'the best words in the best  order', and the best orders of the two languages are the mirror images of  each other, what is a translator to do?

The most obvious parts of language cited frequently for their utter  untranslatability are the lexicon and the semantics of words. For lexicons  are culture-specific. Terms for fauna, flora, caste distinctions, kinship  systems, body parts, even the words that denote numbers, are culturally  loaded. 

Even when the elements of a system may be similar  in two languages, like father. mother, brother, mother-in-law, etc., in kin Ship, the system of relations (say. who can be a mother-in-law. who can  by law or custom marry whom) and the feelings traditionally encouraged about each relative (e.g.,through mother-in-law jokes.step mother tales ,incest taboos) are all culturally sensitive and therefore part of the expressive repertoire of poets and novelists.

The five landscapes  of the Tamil area, characterized by hills. seashores, agricultural areas,  wastelands, and pastoral fields. each with its forms of life, both natural  and cultural.

 Every landscape,  with all its contents, is associated with a mood or phase of love or war.  The landscapes provide the signifiers. The five real landscapes of the  Tamil country become. through this system. the interior landscapes of  Tamil poetry.

The  love poems and war poems are somewhat similarly classified (though the war poems use the landscapes differently and less strictly)

His phrase in English tries to preserve the order and syntax of  : themes, not of single words: (I) his land's waler, followed by (2) leaf-  : covered waterholes, and (3) muddied by animals. I still could not bring  the word 'sweeter' (iniya) into the middle of the poem as the original  does.

 Both the love poems and the war poems provide models and motifs for religious poems. Gods like Krsna are both lovers and warriors. Human love as well as human politics and conflict become metaphors for man's relations with the divine.

If attempting a translation means attempting such an impossibly intricate task, foredoomed to failure. What makes it possible at all? At least four things, maybe even four articles of faith, help the translator.

1. Universals. If there were no universals in which languages partic- ipate and of which all particular languages were selections and combinations, no language learning, translation, comparative studies or cross-cultural understanding of even the most meagre kind would be possible. If such universals did not exist, as Voltaire said of God, we would have had to invent them. They are at least the basic explanatory fictions of both linguistics and the study of literature. Universals of structure, in both signifiers (e.g.. sound systems, grammar, semantics. rhetoric, and poetics) and the signifieds (e.g.. what poems are about, such as love or war, and what they mean within and across cultures). are neces- sary fictions. the indispensable as ifs of our fallible enterprise.

2. Interiorised contexts. 

However culture-specific the details of a poem are, poems like the ones I have been discussing interiorise the entire culture. Indeed, we know about the culture of the ancient Tamils only through a careful study of these poems Later colophons and commentaries explore and explicate this knowledge carried by the poems. setting them in context, using them to make lexicons and chatting the fauna and flora of landscapes,

3. Systematicity. 

The systematicity of such bodies of poetry, the way figures, genres, personae, etc., intermesh in a master-code, is a great help in entering this intricate yet lucid world of words. One translates not single poems but bodies of poetry that create and contain their original world. Even if one chooses not to translate all the poems, one chooses poems that cluster together, that illuminate one another, so that allusions, contrasts, and collective designs are suggested. One's selection then be- -comes a metonymy for their world, re-presenting it. Here intertextuality is not the problem, but the solution. 

4. Structural mimicry.

 Yet, against all this background, the work of translating single poems in their particularity is the chief work of the translator. In this task, I believe, the structures of individual poerns, the unique figures they make out of all the given codes of their language, rhetoric, and poetics, become the points of entry. The poetry and the significance reside in these figures and structures as much as in the un- translatable verbal textures. So one attempts a structural mimicry, to translate relations, not items-not single words but phrases, sequences, sentences; not metrical units but rhythms; not morphology but syntactic patterns.

Conclusion

A Chinese emperor ordered a tunnel to be bored through a great mountain. The engineers decided that the best and quickest way to do it would be to begin work on both sides of the mountain, after precise measurements. If the measurements were pre- cise enough, the two tunnels would meet in the middle, making a single one. 'But what happens if they don't meet?' asked the emperor. The coun- sellors, in their wisdom, answered, 'If they don't meet, we will have two tunnels instead of one.' So too, if the representation in another language is not close enough, but still succeeds in 'carrying' the poem in some sense, we will have two poems instead of one.

ppt

On Translating a Tamil Poem - A. K. Ramanujan.pptx from Nirav Amreliya

video